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Adenovirus
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Adenovirus

Explore the available health information, treatment context, and integrative evidence for Adenovirus.

Background
  • Adenoviruses are medium-sized (90 to 100 nanometers) viruses that contain double-stranded deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). DNA consists of two strands of a series of nucleotides shaped like a twisted ladder. This structure is referred to as a double helix, and it contains an individual's genetic code.
  • Adenoviruses were first described in 1953 but were not named until 1956 when they were found to occur in the adenoids. To date, 49 distinct types of adenoviruses have been linked to human infection and more than 120 adenoviruses are known to infect mammals, birds, and reptiles. Each of these viruses produces a unique immune response. Therefore, if an individual develops immunity to one type of virus after an infection, he or she can still become infected with one of the other types. Adenoviruses are unusually stable and can survive for prolonged periods outside the body.
  • Adenoviruses often cause respiratory illness but may also cause other diseases, such as gastroenteritis (an intestinal infection that may cause diarrhea), conjunctivitis (an infection of the eye surface), cystitis (a bladder infection), skin rash, and meningitis (an infection of the membranes surrounding the brain and spinal cord). The degree of infection ranges from mild to severe. For example, an adenovirus-caused respiratory infection may range from a mild cold to pneumonia. Major complications, such as pneumonia and meningitis, are more likely to occur in patients with a compromised immune system, i.e., patients with HIV/AIDS or patients receiving chemotherapy for cancer.
  • Adenoviral infections are much more common in children than adults and are responsible for 10% of acute respiratory infections in children. They are also a common cause of diarrhea in this age group.
  • The adenovirus has been used extensively as a vector in gene therapy. Vectors are organisms that transfer a disease from one organism to another without becoming infected themselves. Adenoviruses are ideal vectors because of their ability to efficiently transfer genetic material from one cell to another. Gene therapy is a process by which genes are injected into the bloodstream to treat a disease. The goal of gene therapy is to replace a defective gene with a normally functioning one. For example, if a cell that normally produces insulin cannot produce it because of a defective gene, the injected gene can perform that function.
  • Gene therapy at appropriate dosage and usage appears to be both safe and effective. Side effects of adeno-associated vectors appear to be caused by a combination of the vector choice, the vector dose, and the specific product produced for the therapy. Side effects that have been reported with gene therapy include liver damage, nausea, mental confusion, and a drop in blood cell count.
  • Gene therapy with adeno-associated vectors has potential to treat a wide variety of diseases, such as heart disease, cancer, and cystic fibrosis.
Risk Factors and Causes
  • Adenoviral infections are much more common in children than adults and are responsible for 10% of acute respiratory infections in children. They are also a common cause of diarrhea in this age group.
  • Major complications, such as pneumonia and meningitis, are more likely to occur in patients with a compromised immune system, i.e., patients with HIV/AIDS or patients receiving chemotherapy for cancer.
  • Adenovirus infections are caused by adenoviruses, which are medium-sized (90 to 100 nanometers) viruses that contain double-stranded deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). DNA consists of two strands of a series of nucleotides shaped like a twisted ladder. This structure is referred to as a double helix, and it contains an organism's genetic code.
Signs and Symptoms
  • Adenoviruses often cause respiratory illness but may also cause other diseases, such as gastroenteritis (an intestinal infection that may cause diarrhea), conjunctivitis (an infection of the eye surface), cystitis (a bladder infection), skin rash, and meningitis (an infection of the membranes surrounding the brain and spinal cord).
  • The degree of infection ranges from mild to severe. For example, an adenovirus-caused respiratory infection may range from a mild cold to pneumonia. Major complications, such as pneumonia and meningitis, are more likely to occur in patients with a compromised immune system, i.e., patients with HIV/AIDS or patients receiving chemotherapy for cancer.
Diagnosis
  • Adenovirus infections can be identified by a number of methods, including antigen detection, blood analysis (serology), virus isolation, and polymerase chain reaction. Antigens are substances recognized by the body as foreign and to which the body produces an immune response. The body's response to an antigen is the production of an antibody to fight the infection. Antigen detection identifies the presence of an adenovirus antigen in the body. Serology is the examination of the blood to determine the presence of antibodies to a virus. Virus isolation is a process whereby a virus from a blood sample is grown in chick embryos to produce many copies of the virus. Polymerase chain reaction is another method of producing multiple copies of a virus in a laboratory.
  • Adenovirus typing is often done via hemagglutination inhibition or neutralization (inactivation) with a type-specific antiserum. Hemagglutination inhibition is a test in which a virus-specific antibody is mixed with a patient's blood and virus particles. The degree to which the blood cells clump together (agglutinate) indicates the level of an individual's immune response to the virus. An antiserum is a solution that contains substances that fight against infection. The presence of an adenovirus in an individual does not indicate an active infection. An adenovirus can be excreted for prolonged periods, even months to years, after acquiring the virus.
Complications
  • Major complications, such as pneumonia and meningitis, are more likely to occur in patients with a compromised immune system, i.e., patients with HIV/AIDS or patients receiving chemotherapy for cancer.
  • Although most adenovirus infections are minor, some can be serious. Even minor infections can cause missed work or school and the treatment of adenoviruses increases healthcare costs.
  • Despite the fact that they are not ill, carriers of adenoviruses have the ability to spread the organism for months and even years. These individuals thus present a threat to those susceptible to developing adenovirus infections.
Treatment
  • General: In contrast to antibiotics for a bacterial infection, virus-specific treatment for an adenovirus infection is currently unknown. Vaccines have only been developed for acute respiratory disease (ARD) in military recruits. Most adenovirus infections are not severe and can be managed by treating symptoms, getting rest, and assuring adequate fluid intake to avoid dehydration.
  • New adenovirus-caused illnesses are now appearing. These viruses are mutations of previous forms of the virus. They produce typical adenovirus illnesses and can infect individuals who are immune to previous forms of the virus. Treatment options beyond supportive care, such as hydration, rest, and medication for relief of symptoms, are limited.
  • Gene therapy: Gene therapy may help in the treatment of a number of diseases. It is a process whereby genes are injected into the bloodstream to treat a disease. The goal of gene therapy is to replace a defective gene with a normally functioning one. For example, if a cell that normally produces insulin cannot produce it because of a defective gene, a normally functioning gene can be injected to replace the defective one.
  • Adenoviruses can be used as vectors of genetic material into a cell. When used in this capacity, they are known as adeno-associated (AAV) vectors. This genetic material can correct genetic disorders, such as cystic fibrosis. AAV vectors can also aid in the treatment of nongenetic diseases, such as heart disease, by restoring the function of damaged cells.
Prevention
  • Transmission of adenoviruses may occur by direct contact, fecal-oral transmission, and sometimes via contact with infected water. Direct contact transmission is preventable by using good hygiene practices, such as hand washing. Fecal-oral (hand to mouth) transmission is preventable by hand washing after using the restroom or changing an infant's diapers. Waterborne transmission is preventable by maintaining appropriate chlorine levels in swimming pools and by not sharing personal items such as towels.
  • Some individuals are healthy carriers of adenoviruses, meaning that they are "colonized" with the virus in their tonsils, adenoids, or intestines. These individuals can shed the virus for months or even years and may therefore be the source of illness for others.
References

Natural Standard developed the above evidence-based information based on a thorough systematic review of the available scientific articles. For comprehensive information about alternative and complementary therapies on the professional level, go to www.naturalstandard.com. Selected references are listed below.

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  • Laham FR, Jewell AM, Schoonover SL, et al. The search for adenovirus 14 in children in Houston, Texas. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2008 May 22. View Abstract
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  • Navid F, Mischen BT, Helman LJ. Low dose histone deacetylase inhibitor, depsipeptide (FR901228), promotes adenoviral transduction in human rhabdomyosarcoma cell lines. Sarcoma. 2004;8(1):25-30. View Abstract
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  • Zhong L, Li B, Mah CS, et al. Next generation of adeno-associated virus 2 vectors: point mutations in tyrosines lead to high-efficiency transduction at lower doses. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2008 May 29. View Abstract